Apeer-reviewed open-access journal BioRisk 5: 85—107 (2010) 1 1 doi: 10.3897/biorisk.5.844 RESEARCH ARTICLE & B | O R IS k http://biorisk-journal.com/ Climate and elevational range of a South African dragonfly assemblage Contribution to EU/ALARM Project Michael J. Samways, Augustine S. Niba Department of Conservation Ecology and Entomology, and Centre for Invasion Biology, University of Stellen- bosch, P/B X1, 7602 Matieland, South Africa Corresponding author: Michael J. Samways (samways@sun.ac.za) Academic editor: /iirgen Ott | Received 39 July 2010 | Accepted 13 August 2010 | Published 30 December 2010 Citation: Samways MJ, Niba AS (2010) Climate and elevational range of a South African dragonfly assemblage. In: Ott J (Ed) (2010) Monitoring Climatic Change With Dragonflies. BioRisk 5: 85-107. doi: 10.3897/biorisk.5.844 Abstract Elevation and climate are interrelated variables which have a profound affect on biota. Flying insects such as dragonflies can rapidly disperse and select optimal habitat conditions at appropriate elevations. Such behaviour is likely to be especially important in geographical areas which are subject to major climatic events such as El Nifo. Accordingly, we studied dragonflies and environmental variables in a series of res- ervoirs over an elevational range of 100-1350 m a.s.l. at the same latitude on the eastern seaboard of South Africa. The aim was to determine how elevation and climate (as regional processes), as well as local factors, influence species assemblage variability, habitat preference and phenology. Certain environmental vari- ables strongly explained the main variation in species assemblage. ‘These included local factors such as pH, marginal grasses, percentage shade, exposed rock, marginal forest and to a lesser extent, marshes and flow. Different species showed various tolerance levels to these variables. Elevation and climate as regional pro- cesses had very little influence on dragonfly assemblages in comparison with these environmental factors. These odonate species are essentially sub-tropical, and are similar to their tropical counterparts in that they have long flight periods with overlapping generations. Yet they also have temperate characteristics such as over-wintering mostly as larvae. These results indicate evolutionary adaptations from both temperate and tropical regions. Furthermore, most were also widespread and opportunistic habitat generalists. The national endemics Pseudagrion citricola and Africallagma sapphirinum only occurred at high elevations. However, the endemic Agriocnemis falcifera was throughout all elevations, suggesting regional endemism does not necessarily equate to elevational intolerance. Overall, the results suggest that many millennia of great climatic variation have led to a highly vagile and elevation-tolerant dragonfly assemblage which read- ily occupies new water bodies. Such an assemblage is likely to be highly tolerant of global climate change, so long as there is sufficient water to keep the reservoirs at a constant level. Copyright MJ. Samways,A.S. Niba. This is an open access article distributed under the terms of the Creative Commons Attribution License, which permits unrestricted use, distribution, and reproduction in any medium, provided the original author and source are credited. 86 Michael J. Samways & Augustine S. Niba/ BioRisk 5: 85-107 (2010) Keywords Climate, elevation, dragonflies, adaptations, South Africa Introduction Insect phenology usually varies with topography and associated environmental factors (Wolda 1987). Interactions between temperature-dependent development and micro- climate are important features of insect life-history, leading to the maintenance of con- siderable genetic variation in populations (Bradshaw and Holzapfel 1990; Roff 1990). Studies in insects and other arthropods suggest that microclimatic gradients sometimes can have larger effects on emergence phenology than do annual fluctuations in weather conditions (e.g. Kingsolver 1979; Weiss et al. 1993). Moreover, field evidence (Thomas et al. 2001) supports theoretical predictions (Thomas et al. 1999) that certain types of thermophilous insects have expanded to occupy broader niches, and hence larger patch sizes near their northern range margins in the northern hemisphere during some warm summers in recent years (Ott, this volume). Small reservoirs are a characteristic feature of the South African agricultural land- scape, acting as important reserves for dragonflies (Samways 1989a). These reservoirs have been shown to be important in promoting the conservation of insect diversity, but mostly of generalist species (Samways and Steytler 1996). Such reservoirs increase the area of occupancy of the local species. Thus, they are present in the local area in natural water bodies and simply move across to the reservoirs. The topography of KwaZulu-Natal, South Africa ranges in elevation from 0—3000 m a.s.l along a 200 km E-W transect at one latitude. This area is strongly modified by montane climate at higher elevations, and has a sub-tropical/tropical climate at sea level. The study area within KwaZulu-Natal is situated at the edge of a major escarp- ment comprising a highly heterogeneous landscape structure with a wide variety of aquatic habitats. This elevational transect supports a high diversity of dragonfly species making up close to three-quarters of the South African odonate fauna. This provides a basis for measuring how species phenologies and distribution respond to the seasonal (temporal) and elevational changes. This information can be useful for subsequent conservation action, and for providing baseline data for future studies on the impacts of global climate change. Using a series of five moderately-sized artificial, but well-established reservoirs (which only reach about 1400 m a.s.l.), the aim here was to determine the extent to which elevation (as a regional process), alongside local factors, influence habitat prefer- ences and species distribution. Furthermore, as there is no information on the effects of seasonal changes on southern African odonate species, the aim was also to determine how phenology might vary with elevation. Climate and elevational range of a South African dragonfly assemblage 87 Materials and methods Study area The study area was in KwaZulu-Natal between the coast and the Drakensberg escarp- ment (<3000 m a.s.l.). Elevation exerts a major influence on climatic features at all spatial scales, being a barrier to rain-bearing air masses, and by altering temperature through lapse rates and aspect (Tyson 1986; Schulze 1997). Reservoirs, all of which were over 30 years in age, were selected within this eleva- tional gradient (Fig. 1) to be at the same latitude (with 26 minutes latitude) and to be relatively comparable (Table 1). The maximum elevation that could be entertained for these comparative studies was 1400 m a.s.l, even though the mountain peaks reached 3000 m a.s.l. Methods Each reservoir was about 1 ha, and stratified into six sub-sites, each measuring 20 m length (along a line transect on the reservoir edge) by 2 m width (1 m on land and 1 m into water). Data were collected on 42 sampling occasions, and covered various stages of dragonfly development (adults, tenerals and young adults (together here simply called ‘tenerals’), larvae and exuviae). Mating or oviposition were also recorded (mostly tandem flights and occasional dipping of ovipositors). Environmental variables were recorded twice a month from January 2001 to December 2002, except for the winter months of June, July and August when data were collected once each month. Adult males were recorded using close-focus binoculars, and walking along the 20 m sub-sites and counting within 6 min all individuals perching or flying. Counts of Anisoptera at sub-sites can be virtually 100% accurate and that of Zygoptera exceeds 80% (Moore 1991). Counts were between 10h00 and 14h00 during sunny, high activ- ity periods of the day. Exuviae and tenerals were recorded as an indication of successful breeding. In this study, population changes were indicated by comparing the maximum numbers of individuals (adults, tenerals and larvae) observed each month for the whole sampling period. Unidentified tenerals from the field were collected and reared in the labora- tory until their body colour (with genitalia morphology) could be used for subsequent identification. Larvae were sampled with a dip-net (41 cm diameter x 1 mm mesh sieve). Two dips per sub-site (12 dips/site) were done within 20 min. Each dip was followed by vig- orously shoving the net back and forth in water once among water weeds, along rushes and besides banks. We fully accept that no single, quantitative collection method is equally efficient for all species of larvae, and even all ages. However, the comparative efficiency of the collection method, being standardized, will be the same at different sites. Individual larvae in the net were identified using a 9x hand lens, counted and 88 Michael J. Samways & Augustine S. Niba/ BioRisk 5: 85-107 (2010) Figure |. The mid-elevation site (790 m a.s.l.) with reedy margins typical of all the sites. released back into water except where individuals could not be identified in the field, in which case, they were picked out with soft, flexible forceps and placed in aerated plastic cages containing reservoir water. Usually only last-instar larvae were collected for subsequent rearing and identification in the laboratory. Marginal vegetation (both structural and compositional) was estimated using per- centages of sub-sites they covered. At all sub-sites, aquatic plants were recorded as: marginal forest stands (Mfor), marginal grasses (Mgra), floating and submerged veg- etation (Fsv), marginal herbs, sedges and reeds (Mhsr). Meteorological data e.g. rainfall, ambient and water temperatures (At/Wt) col- lected at Goodhope Estate (GH), Cedara (CE) and the Botanical Gardens (BG) were compared with that collated by the weather bureau at Cedara Agricultural College. Also, rainfall and temperature data for Krantzkloof (KL) and Stainbank (SB) Nature Reserves were compared with that collated by the Durban Airport weather station. Other measured environmental variables were percentage exposed rock in the sampling sub-site (Exrock %), percentage shade (% Sh), water depth (Wd), turbid- ity (Tur %), pH, flow (1 = running, 0 = still), reservoir circumference (Pcir (m)) and elevation (Elev (m)). Data were analysed with univariate methods for species richness and abundance relationships using diversity indices, distributional models and graphical methods. Species spatial and temporal variability was analysed using Analysis of Variance (ANOVA). Spearman’s rank correlation coefficients were used to measure the associa- tion between variables and species abundance and richness. These correlations were Climate and elevational range of a South African dragonfly assemblage 89 Table |. The five elevational sites used in this study Site name/code Grid reference | Land use and Elevation Kenneth Stainbank Nature Reserve (SB) 29°50'S; 30°55'E; | Nature reserve (Low elevation) 100 ma.s.l. Krantzkloof Nature Reserve (KL) 29°46'S, 30°5'E; Nature reserve (Mid-low elevation) 450 mas.l Botanical Gardens, Pietermaritzburg (BG) | 29°35'S; 30°25'E; | Botanical gardens (Mid-elevation) 790-anaisil, Cedara (CE) 29°61'S; 29°06'E; | Low-intensity agricultural area (Mid-high elevation) 1050 ma.s.l. Mondi Goodhope Estate (GH) 29°40'S; 29°58'E; | Extensive grassland corridors (High elevation) 1350 ma.s.l. (natural state) among pine stands calculated using the software SPSS version 6.1. MINITAB and SPSS software were used to run ANOVA, relating species to sites and site variables. In addition to ANO- VA, Similarity coefficients calculated between every pair of samples helped facilitate a classification or clustering of samples into groups which are mutually similar or an ordination plot in which the samples are ‘mapped’ into multidimensional space in such a way that the distances between pairs of samples reflect their relative dissimilar- ity of species composition. Hierarchical agglomerative clustering, using the program ‘Cluster’ in the computer software PRIMER (Clark and Warwick 1994) was used to compare sites. The species by sub-site (SS) data matrix was transformed using 4° root-transformation to bal- ance rarer and commoner species. The Bray-Curtis similarity index was then used to produce a similarity matrix and then fused successively through hierarchical clustering using group-average linking, to produce a dendrogram with the x-axis defining a simi- larity level at which two samples or groups are considered to have fused, and the y-axis representing the full set of samples. Correspondence analysis (CA), operates on a site and species data matrix and rep- resents it on a two-dimensional plane (ter Braak and Smilauer 1998). It uses a site-by- species scores data matrix and summarises it such that increasing distance between the sites on the ordination plane means decreasing similarity in the species assemblages at the respective sites. Conversely, from a species-by-site matrix, CA ordinates the data such that the closer two species are to one another on the same ordination plane, the greater the likelihood that they will occur at the same or similar sites and vice versa. Canonical Correspondence Analysis (CCA) was used to relate species and site scores to underlying environmental variables. The length of an arrow representing an environ- mental variable is equal to the rate of change in the weighted average as inferred from the bi/triplot, and is therefore a measure of how much the species distribution differs along that environmental gradient. Important environmental gradients therefore tend to be represented by longer arrows than less important ones (ter Braak and Looman 1995). The software CANOCO version 4 and CANODRAY version 3.1 (ter Braak and Smilauer 1998) were used. 90 Michael J. Samways & Augustine S. Niba/ BioRisk 5: 85-107 (2010) Results Species phenology A total of 47 species was recorded throughout the study (Table 2). Adults of only three species (Ceriagrion glabrum, Lestes plagiatus and Crocothemis erythraea ) were recorded during winter, and then only at Mid (BG) elevation. Accumulation curves reached asymptotes for tenerals with 10-14 species, and for adults with 21—25 species, and varied with elevation (Fig. 2). Relative proportions of adults, tenerals and larvae Larvae stayed at about the same level all year round (Fig. 3). Tenerals and adults showed the same trends as in Fig. 2 i.e. none in July and August. However, there was trend for maximum numbers to be reached later at higher elevations, from October to Decem- ber for tenerals and November to February for adults. Larval abundance varied from 20 individuals in January at Mid-low (KL) elevation to 138 in April at Mid-high (CE) elevation. Teneral counts also varied from two individuals in June at High (GH) eleva- tion to 175 individuals in November at Mid-high (CE) elevation. Thereafter, larval abundance at all elevations was high in November for both years. No teneral individu- als were recorded at any elevations during winter (July to August). Adult abundance was greatest in November for both years and at all sites except at High (GH) and Mid- low (KL) where it was in December. Peak occurrence periods There was continual emergence over the summer months, and there was continuous presence of two or three developmental stages between September and June. Lestes plagiatus and L. tridens probably over-wintered in the egg stage. Table 3 summarises the months for peaks in adult, teneral, larval stages, and mating/oviposition in Ani- soptera and Zygoptera species. Anisoptera adults from High (GH), Mid-high (CE) and Low (SB) elevations had peak occurrences mostly from December to March, although most species peaked in November during the first sampling year at the High (GH) elevation. Species peaks in Mid (BG) and Mid-low (KL) elevation were also similar, occurring in November in both sampling years. Double peaks occurred at the Mid-high (CE) elevation for C. erythraea, occurring in March and November 2001, January and November 2002. Trithemis stictica peaked in March and Novem- ber 2001, April and November 2002. Zygoptera species had very similar peak adult occurrence periods at High (GH), Mid (BG) and Low (SB) elevations, from December to March in both years. At Mid- high (CE) and Mid-low (KL) elevations, peak adult appearance was April/May. Zygop- Climate and elevational range of a South African dragonfly assemblage 91 Table 2. Odonata species sampled during this study with species code names Species Elevations CE_| GH Anisoptera Aeshnidae Anax imperator Leach, 1815? A. speratus Hagen, 1867? A. tristis Hagen, 1867’ Atri Gomphidae Ceratogomphus pictus Sélys, 1854° Ictinogomphus ferox (Rambur, 1842)? Ifer Notogomphus praetorius (Sélys, 1878) * Noto Paragomphus cognatus (Rambur, 1842) ° | Pcog Libellulidae Acisoma panorpoides Rambur, 1842? Acis ADE Brachythemis leucosticta Burm., 1839° Bleu Chalcostephia flavifrons Kirby, 1889! Chfl Crocothemis erythraea (Brullé, 1832) * Cer Diplacodes lefebvrii (Rambur, 1842) ? Dlev Hemistigma albipunctum Rambur 1842? | Halb | | | Nesciothemis farinosa (Forster, 1898) ° Nfar Notiothemis jonesi Ris, 1919! Njon Orthetrum caffrum (Burmeister, 1839) ° | Ocaf O. hintzi Schmidt, 1951! Ohin |- O. julia falsum Longfield, 1955° Ojul |ATL Pantala flavescens (Fabricius, 1798) ° Pfla Palpoleura portia (Drury, 1773) * Pluc P. jucunda jucunda Rambur, 1842? Pjuc Diplacodes luminans (Karsch, 1893) ! Plum Sympetrum fonscolombii (Sélys, 1840) ” Sfon Rhyothemis semihyalina Desjardins, 1832? | Rsh AT AT A Tetrathemis polleni Sélys 1877' Tpol |A = = is Li AL A A Tramea basilaris (Beauvois, 1817) ” Tbas AL A AL AL Trithemis arteriosa (Burmeister, 1839) ° ‘Fart A A AL AL T. dorsalis (Rambur, 1842) ? Tdor T. stictica (Burmeister, 1839) 2 Tsti Urothemis assignata (Sélys, 1872) * Uass Zygonyx natalensis (Martin, 1900) * Znat Zygoptera Chlorocyphidae Bama ha caligata Sélys, 1853° [Pel [- [- far fa f- Coenagrionidae Africallagma elongatum (Martin, 1907) ' | Aelo |— z A a a 92 Michael J. Samways & Augustine S. Niba/ BioRisk 5: 85-107 (2010) Species Elevations Code BG | CE | GH A.glaucum (Burmeister, 1839) ° Aglm ATL | ATL | ATL | ATL A. sapphirinum (Pinhey, 1950)4 Asap — — 7 ae 15 Agriocnemis falcifera Pinhey, 19594 Afal ATL | ATL | ATL | ATL Tas Aguragrion nigridorsum (Sélys, 1876) * Azn AT Ceriagrion glabrum (Burmeister, 1839)? | Cglm | ATL Ischnura senegalensis (Rambur, 1842) ° Isen | ATL Pseudagrion citricola Barnard, 19374 Pcit ess ea Sea ers P. hageni Karsch 1893? Phag | AT P kersteni (Gerstacker, 1869) ° Pker | ATL P. massaicum Sjéstedt, 1909° Pmas | ATL P. salisburyense, Ris, 1921° Poal | SAEs | ACIS | PAIRED) CANES A Lestidae Lestes plagiatus (Burmeister, 1839) ° Lple =i AIL + | PACE | Arie, || SAL L. tridens McLachlan, 1895! Lei eAthena Tle eee ol — Platycnemididae Allocnemis leucosticta Sélys, 18637 Aleu eee ae athe | ea — A — — * Record of adult, teneral and/or larval stage of the corresponding species. 'Common African species whose range extends south just over the border into South Africa, but are local or rare in the country, ? African species that are widespread and/or locally common in South Africa, 3 African species that are regularly seen in the right habitats, some of these are very common throughout South Africa, * Species endemic to South Africa (i.e. South of the Limpopo River). tera species with two peaks per year were Ischnura senegalensis and C. glabrum, each oc- curring at various elevations (C. glabrum was absent at High (GH) elevation). Also, AF ricallagma glaucum and Pseudagrion massaicum had two peak appearances in Mid-high (CE) elevation. L. plagiatus had two peaks per year at Mid (BG) and Mid-low (KL) elevation, while L. tridens and P massaicum had two peak abundances per year in Low (SB) elevation during both years. L. tridens from Low (SB) elevation had four peaks at different times during the two sampling years: April and December 2001, March and November 2002, indicating more than one generation per year. The number of species per family was very similar from one elevation to the next. Fifteen species occurred at all five elevations, while 17 species were restricted to only one elevation: eight in Low (SB); four each at High (GH) and Mid (BG) and one only occurred at Mid-low (KL). 15 species occurred over at least two elevations at all five elevations (Table 4). The dominant species at the Low (SB) elevation site was L. tridens (22%), while I. stictica dominated in Mid-high (CE) elevation. Both elevations had relatively high percentage levels of species dominance patterns compared to the other elevations. Mid-low (KL) elevation and High (GH) elevation showed some similarity in pat- terns of species dominance, with 7’ arteriosa (17%) and T’ stictica (18%) being the dominant species. Climate and elevational range of a South African dragonfly assemblage 93 @ Low (GH) elevation site b Mid-high (CE) elevation site 154 Number of species n Number of species in ——1_— 10) 10 1 5 i o " T ——T ye — —? Tt = “= Jun Jul Aug Sep Oct Nov Dec Jan Feb Mar Apr May 0 Jun Jul Aug Sep Oct Nov Dee Jan Feb Mar Apr May Months Months —+ SBT ——SBTO2 —e—S BAO] —*—SBAO2 ——KLTO] —@— KLT02 —t— KLAO] —@— KLAO2 C Middle (BG) elevation d Mid-high (CE) elevation Number of species Number of species 0 + r r r r r — ; r + a] Jun Jul Aug Sep Oct Nov Dec Jan Feb Mar Apr May Months Jun Jul Aug Sep Oct Nov Dec Jan Feb Mar Apr May Months —~— BGT —— BG TN? —*— BGAN] —#— BGA0N2 —— CEN) —— CEN? —t— CEAO] —0— CFA02 e High (GH) elevation Number of species Jun Jul Aug Sep Oct Nov Dec Jan Feb Mar Apr May Months —e— CHT! ——cCHT? —r— GHA0O] —*— GHA02 Figure 2. Accumulative dragonfly tenerals (T) and adults (A) species recorded at a Low (SB), b Mid-low (KL), ¢ Mid (BG), d Mid-high (CE) and e High (GH) elevations during the first (01) and second (02) year of the study. Spatial variations in adults, tenerals and larvae with elevation Larval species richness and abundance was highest at Mid-high (CE) elevation. Pat- terns of teneral species richness across elevations ranged between 14 and 16 species per elevation during the study, with Mid-low (KL) recording lowest individual counts. Overall number of adults species varied slightly across elevations, with Low (SB) eleva- 94 Michael J. Samways & Augustine S. Niba/ BioRisk 5: 85-107 (2010) a D —Mid-tow (KL) elevation site Low (SB) elevation site 50 Z i if [! il [I 3 : || [| E 40 = | A} = 30 = ‘c g 3 20 a ‘o z 2 7 ll | 0 T T T T T T T T T T T 1 Jan Feb Mar Apr May Jun Jul Aug Sep Qet Nov Dee Jan Feb Mar Apr May Jun Jul Aug Sep Oct Nov Dec Months Months BKLA © KLT@ KLL BSBA © SBT MS SBL c d Mid-high elevation site Middle (BG) elevation site 60 60 50 l] Al J (| a 50 * il o 5“ [ | i zoiff fi i l ] UJ 2 a 2 c= - 30 3 Fad a = a wn _ [—] 20 0 Jan "Feb via. Apr “May. ie Jul Aug Spee Oct. Nov ne Jan Feb Mar Apr May Jun Jul Aug Sep Oct Nov Dec i—} Months Months @ CEA © CET @ CEL BGA © BGTMBGL High (GH) elevation site 45 40 35 I 0 15 10 ; | 0 Jan Feb Mar Pee May Jun Jul Fe Sep ot! Nov Dec Months Species richness wn BGHA © GHTSGHL Figure 3. Dragonfly species recorded at a Low (SB), b Mid-low (KL), ¢ Mid (BG), d Mid-high (CE) and e High (GH) in terms of adults (A), tenerals (T) and larvae (L), and during the two-year sampling period. tion supporting the most species. Adult abundance was highly variable across eleva- tions, with Mid-low elevation (KL) recording lowest abundance. Larval species rich- ness was significantly positively correlated with elevation (F = 19.25; P = 0.002), as was abundance (F= 7.69; P=0.024). Teneral species richness was negatively correlated with elevation but not statistically significantly. There was weak, non-significant positive correlation for teneral individuals with elevation (F = 4.73; P= 0.056). Regressions of adult dragonfly species richness (P=0.27) and abundance (P=0.32) on elevation were Climate and elevational range of a South African dragonfly assemblage we) Table 3. Summary of species phenologies recorded during this study. Site Adults Mating/ Larvae Elevation oviposition (m a.s.l.) Zygoptera__| Anisoptera Low Dec—Mar 2002 |Feb-Jun |Jan—Apr |Apr—May Apr—May (SB) 100 m_ | Dec—Mar 2001 | Dec—Mar 2001 Dec Dec Mid-low Nov 2002 Apr 2002 Feb—Mar |Feb—Mar |Apr—Jun Apr—May (KL) 450 m__| Nov 2001 Apr 2001 Oct-Nov | Dec Dec Middle Nov 2002 Jan—Mar 2002 | Feb—Mar |Feb—Mar |Mar—Apr, Jul, | May, Sep— (BG) 790 m__| Nov 2001 Sep—Nov Nov—Dec Oct (CE) 1050 m_ |Dec—Mar 2001 | Apr—May 2002 | Oct—Nov Sep—Dec High Dec—Mar 2002 | Dec—Mar 2002 | Jan—May Feb—Sep (GH) 1350 m | Nov 2001 Feb—Apr 2001 not statistically significant even though there was a generally decreasing trend in spe- cies as elevation increased. Two-way ANOVA of the response of adults, tenerals and larvae to elevation across seasons showed no statistically significant effect on adult species (F = 1.2, P = 0.31) or teneral individuals (F = 1.6; P = 0.41). However, there were statistically significant responses for adult individuals (F = 2.9; P = 0.01), teneral species (F = 2.1; P = 0.05), larval species (F = 4.2; P = 0.002) and larval individuals (F = 10.0; P = 0.001) (Table 5). Relationship between species and environmental conditions Species associations with elevation were strongest on ordination plots when all Odo- nata were separated into their component sub-orders (Anisoptera and Zygoptera). CA results for Anisoptera (Fig. 4a) showed most open water species clumped at the centre of the ordination. Zygoptera species showed various trends as species were more dis- persed from the centre of the ordination (Fig. 4b). They were more tolerant of diverse conditions of shade as well as of open water. Separate CCA ordinations were also run for species belonging to Anisoptera and Zygoptera again for better interpretation of the effects of measured variables and elevation on patterns of dragonfly assemblage composition and distribution. Species-site-variable triplots for Anisoptera (Fig. 5a) and Zygoptera (Fig. 5b) showed that most assemblages were related to a number of environmental variables, and indicated how species responded or not to gradients of these variables in space. Accordingly, elevation, marginal grasses, pH, reservoir circumference, atmospheric temperature and percentage shade appeared on the first (horizontal ordination axis) as the most important variables, while water depth, floating /submerged vegetation and marginal forest occurred on the second axis (vertical) and were less important in deter- mining Anisoptera species assemblage distribution patterns. Marginal forest, percent- age shade, water depth and floating/submerged vegetation were the most important 96 Michael J. Samways & Augustine S. Niba/ BioRisk 5: 85-107 (2010) Table 4. Odonata species and elevational distributiona Elevations Species One elevation Azn, Ltri, Atri, Bleu, Chfl, Halb, Dlev, Tpol 100 m (SB) 450 m (KL) Njon 790 m (BG) Pcal, Aleu, Aelo, Pcog 1050 m (CE) None 1350 m (GH) Asap, Pcit, Ohin, Pjuc Two elevations Cpic, Ocaf GEyGH KL, BG Znat KLSGH Noto SB, GH Ifer Three elevations Acis SB,-CE; GE SE..BG,"CE Pmas, Rshy SB, KL, BG Phag, Pluc, Plum Four elevations Lplg, Tdor, Tsti KL, BG, CE, GH SB, KL, BG, CE Cglm All five elevations Uass, Tart, Sfon, Pfla, Ojul, Nfar, Cery, Aspe, Pker, Psal, 100-1350 m Isen, Afal, Agim, Tbas, Aimp SB (Low) = (100 m), KL (Mid-low) = (450 m), BG (Mid) = (790 m), CE (Mid-high) = (1050 m) and GH (High) = (1350 m). Species codes are as in Table 2. variables, while marginal grasses, elevation and pH were important for Zygoptera. The following Anisoptera species were also associated with marginal grasses of reservoirs at High (GH) and Mid-high (CE) elevations: 7! stictica, Palpopleura jucunda, Acisoma panorpoides, Orthetrum caffrum. N. jonesi was associated with highly shaded conditions of sub-site three at Mid-low (KL) elevation. Low (SB) elevation species (when the elevation gradient is projected backwards on the ordination triplot) had the typical species Hemistigma albipunctum, Chalcostephia flavifrons, Tetrathemis polleni, Diplacodes lefebvrii, Rhyothemis semihyalina and Tramea basilaris, even though the last three species were also present at higher elevations. Open reservoirs at all elevations had the following species in common, located mostly at the centre of the ordination for Anisoptera: O. julia, C. erythraea, T. arteriosa, P lucia, A. speratus, A. imperator, T: dorsalis, N. farinosa and P flavescens. High (GH) elevation zygopterans like Pseudagrion citricola and Africallagma saphirinum were strongly associated with sunny conditions, high pH and marginal grasses. Low (SB) elevation species were L. tridens and A. nigridorsum while P hageni was associated with Middle (BG) to Low (SB) elevation shade conditions. A. elonga- tum, P kersteni and P salisburyense were associated with minimal flow, exposed rock and marshy conditions. Climate and elevational range of a South African dragonfly assemblage 97 =) : i “Fi co ; Bas | + Znat SB6 SB5 ; Chil o SB2 Njon Aimp * Pluc © Rshy Me: ax Ley os KL2 taor GH6 Plum e me 0 Aspe s Thas we) e BG1 Oo es z Oo SB1 Cery 4 Pes GH1 CES BG2 o ® Gua"! Tsti Ojul CE4 8 GHS Chic Pfla O CE1 GH3 CE6 GH2 CE3 Noto CE2 Sfon Nfar Ryne Acis an | ie T T T T T T T T T T T T T T T T T T T -1.0 +1.0 er BG2 rc + CE2 GH1 KL2 ome) Pker . O Psal Afal SB5 Va ie f°) SB1 CE3 OKL1 SB6 GH2 7 ARAB Agim Pm as Liri e ® oO ° . GHE Lois e e calm O « O e GH3 CE1 [sen Phag SB2 Agni SB4 Pcit CE4 Make oO ie) BGi @) SB3 KL5 O o CES BG6 GH4 O CE6 O GH5 KL6 BG4 BG5 Aleu Oo 1) ot KL4 Er 5 —-—;——+ +. taal watts G Figure 4. a CA biplot of Anisoptera species (closed circles) and sampling sites (open circles), and b CA biplot of Zygoptera species (closed circles) and sampling sites (open circles) for pooled 2001 and 2002 data. Site abbreviations are: SB (Low) = (100 m), KL (Mid-low) = (450 m), BG (Mid) = (790 m), CE (Mid-high) = (1050 m) and GH ( High) = (1350 m). Species codes are as in Table 2. 98 Michael ]. Samways & Augustine S. Niba/ BioRisk 5: 85-107 (2010) pos % Sh Znat e Dipl Fsv Tas can SBE Oo Tart SB? * Pac his _ Halb GHG Rshy Plum BG1 tor 1S) 5B1 Cerw GHi = Bleu oO CES Chis Noto Pfla Qjyt BG2 ; CE4 Mhsr 5 gh Marsh CE2 Mgra Alt = a + SB6 sp5 0 | SB1 sae ©) Marsh Afal - Fsv Flow a @SB2 Pm as eghm . Azni GH4 tole a Osea CE6 GH5 CE1 %Sh oO CE5 SB3 BG4 BG6 KL5 Aleu Oo fe) i) 4 } -1.0 +1.0 Figure 5. a CCA triplot of Anisoptera species (closed circles), elevation sites sampling units (open cir- cles) and site variables (arrows) and b CCA triplot of Zygoptera species (closed circles), elevation sites sampling units (open circles) and site variables (arrows) for pooled 2001/2002 data. Axis 1 is horizontal and axis 2 vertical. Site abbreviations are: SB (Low) = (100 m), KL (Mid-low) = (450 m), BG (Mid) = (790 m), CE (Mid-high) = (1050 m) and GH ( High) = (1350 m). Site variables are: Alt= elevation, Mgra= marginal grasses, Mhsr= marginal herbs, sedges and reeds, Mfor= marginal forest, Tur= water turbidity, Fsv= floating and submerged vegetation, %Sh= percentage shade. Species codes are as in Table 2. 99 Climate and elevational range of a South African dragonfly assemblage (Aarigeqoid Jo Joao] OG By) Ie JUROYTUSIS ATTesNsTIeIS-UOU = su) “YIdap J3IVM = PAA ‘AUIPIGIN = AN ‘ssesd [eursreul = VASP {1SoJOJ [eUTSIeW = AOJPY ‘UOTIEINSIA possiouIgns pue SuNeOy = AS4 ‘“omnyesoduray saydsoune = Zw ‘opeys oseiusoiod = yg % “(tH OSET) = (Y3IH) HD PUP (tH OSOT) = (Y3IY-PIN) AD “(& 06Z) = (PIN) De “(4 OSH) = (TPH) TDM ‘(4 OOT) = (“OT) aS ‘JENPIAIpUT [ease] = purq ‘soiods yeasey] = ds7q ‘sjenprarpur yesoua) = pul ‘soiods yesouai = ds 4 ‘sjenprarpur ynpe = puny ‘soieds anpy = dsw su yO | H'T| 707 | VEZ b7 | $7 | O81 apes ct | b@ | 7 | 97 | E67 PA su 80 vfrof ee for ecpeey » fre Pe beet 7a rans c[2[< [ec] os foolec| we 100°0 |7Z| 78 8z | 97 TL || a6*6 JECT E21) BT Gee SA a ezt 1 SEr eez ysreyy su 940 Om cen PE | MOT ESS [sce ce eis] su $F'0) OSs | SOE I ROE | On Se 1) 6S | HE | 6 JOFW\ su 9'() SIZ 6h | ke | Ea) BE) SST i) OO /EST | 2 EIT] 12 AS su 6¢'0 gc. |) Oe Gz | “ore | <81| ZT) A | = vO€ 1V su 970) Tete P27] He Or | 91 | IT C91 YS % zoo'o |z7¥] €I | 91 | €1 | SI GOT | 5 Gl || ed We | Sr) Be Sel €r | €1 | €f | €1 |S ds] su FI‘ Haat €¥T | OGI | ZOL | 9IZ 6t | 0% | SI 00z | €zz | ZEL | SZI | 71 aeacaeas 56 | 7Z1]} PULL, <0 rey we Pe Dow foe 9 | $8 rps fsefen] pepper noo [ar oer Er 10°0 | 6'7| Es a puly suTe€O |Z 1] 6L dsy HD | 4D qo | Da | TA | dS jerqerea oS ‘porod Surjdures ajoym ay Surnp soyqeisea dus pomnseow pure ‘aouepuNge pue ssdUYT seAIE] pur spesouar‘sinpe ApuOseIp ULIU JOJ UOTIDeIOIUT A1TTeUOSeAS PUL UOTIAIIO JO SI[NsaI WAOQNY-APM-OMT *§ BIGUL 100 Michael J. Samways & Augustine S. Niba/ BioRisk 5: 85-107 (2010) Table 6. Intra-set correlations between each of the site variables and Canonical Correspondence Analysis axes 1 and 2 for adult Anisoptera and Zygoptera species and site variables sampled over two years across all five elevations. Odonata/ Anisoptera Zygoptera Variables Eigenvalues 0.318 02127 Mfor -0.5049 0.3524 Fsv 0.2001 0.0900 Mgra -0.5586 0.2150 Erock -0.0947 0.5153 Marsh 0.0274 0.2826 %Sh 0.5454 -0.2373 Wd 0.0642 -0.2924 Tur -0.5051 -0.0390 pH 0.7604 0.0177 At 0.0526 -0.0476 Mhsr 0.0490 -0.1449 Flow 0.2145 -0.2579 Alt (Elev (m)) -0.8522 0.0251 Pcir (m) -0.29990 0.0141 SB (Low) = (100 m), KL (Mid-low) = (450 m), BG (Mid) = (790 m), CE (Mid-high) = Cedara (1050 m) and GH (High) = (1350 m). @Variable abbreviations as in Methods. Intra-set correlations of environmental gradients with axes (Table 6) showed that elevation, pH, percentage shade and marginal grasses were highly correlated with axis one for both odonate sub-orders, with marginal forest being an additional correlate to this axis for Zygoptera. Reservoir circumference for Anisoptera and exposed rock for Zygoptera were the only important correlates with axis two in both ordinations. Axes three and four were not important. A summary of weightings attributed to the first two axes of ordinations for Anisoptera and Zygoptera showed that species-environment correlations using CANOCO were strong. The respective eigenvalues, cumulative spe- cies variances and Monte-Carlo tests for CCA are given in Table 7. With a cumulative percentage variance for species data and for species-environment relations of 89%, it meant that measured site variables were probably responsible for the main variation in species patterns for Anisoptera. A Monte Carlo permutation test of probability further strengthened this inference as the first axis (Axl: F= 5.98; P< 0.005) and all four axes (global: F = 3.140; P< 0.005) were highly significant. A cumulative species variance for species data and for species-environment relations of 39.9% for Zygoptera suggests that measured site variables accounted for little variation in species assemblage distri- bution patterns for this taxon. Although a Monte Carlo permutation test of probability showed that the first axis (Ax1: F = 1.99; P< 0.01) was significant, the overall test using all four ordination axes (global: F = 1.75; P< 0.4) was not significant. Climate and elevational range of a South African dragonfly assemblage 101 Table 7. Summary of weightings of the first two axes of CA and CCA for both Anisoptera and Zygoptera adults sampled during the study in terms of variances accounted for by the two axes. Monte Carlo prob- ability tests of significance are given for the first canonical axis (AX1) and all four axes. Axes Anisoptera weightings AXES Eigenvalues 0.352 | 0.186 SP-ENC! 0.905 CPVs? 48.3 CPVS-EN? F-Ratio P-value ' Species-environment correlations; ? Cumulative species variance of species data; > Cumulative species variance of species-environment relationship. (ns= statistically non-significant at the 5% level). Discussion Phenology Seasonal rhythms with dormant (over-wintering) periods during winter are an integral part of the life history of temperate dragonflies (Corbet 1999). A similar trend was observed in this study, larvae generally being the only developmental stage sampled in winter (June and July). There were no adult and/or teneral species at any elevation except at Mid (BG), where adults of three species (Ceriagrion glabrum, Lestes plagia- tus and Crocothemis erythraea) overwintered. Larvae of the dragonfly species sampled throughout this study, occurred (at various stadia) throughout the year at all elevations, but varied in diversity, richness and abundance. This was also the case for temperate regions where the larval stage is the most common over-wintering stage in Odonata (Norling 1984a; Corbet 1999). Some species e.g. J. senegalensis, L. plagiatus, C. erythraea, and T: stictica appeared to have several distinct generations per year. This may be the case when the larval popu- lation is provided for by the synchronised return of adult residents, and oviposition occurring early enough to allow more than one generation in a year (Corbet 1999). Other species appeared to have a general overlap of larval cohorts. Nevertheless, there were still noticeable peaks in adult emergence for some species, with three distinct seasonal categories of species peaks appearing at all five elevations: 1) Spring peak (September—November), 2) Summer peak (early: December-March), and 3) Autumn peak (April-May). Species with adult occurrence peaking in spring and/or summer probably over- wintered between June and August as final-instar larvae or intermediate stadia, re- suming growth to subsequent higher-instar larvae as favourable climatic conditions 102 Michael J. Samways & Augustine S. Niba/ BioRisk 5: 85-107 (2010) and food became available from September. Autumn species perhaps over-wintered as eggs e.g. members of the family Lestidae (Corbet 1999; Norling 1984a), or as early- instar larvae. The subtropical Anisoptera species studied here were generally elevation- tolerant, univoltine, yet had prolonged emergence. In contrast, most Zygoptera were multivoltine, although also highly elevation tolerant. Since climatic changes associated with seasons act locally and its effects are most apparent on the level of populations and metapopulations (McCarty 2001), many factors may have accounted for species temporal variations e.g. 1) mean annual pre- cipitation as it affects the long-term quality and quantity of water available (Dent et al. 1989; Pinhey 1978) with rain in this study falling in summer, 2) as there are tem- perature irregularities usually attributed to topographical variation (Schultze 1997) in this study area, this may have resulted in warm coastal climate with high precipitation levels versus the cooler climates at higher elevations, or, 3) simple chance migrations could also have caused variation. Aspects of dragonfly species adaptations in the sub-tropics The centre of biogeographical distribution of a dragonfly species is very important in determining the number of generations the species can go through in a year (Corbet 1999). Most dragonflies colonising the temperate zone for example, have evolved a life cycle where winter is spent in the larval stage. Usually a large number of stadia is a means of resisting cold (e.g. Paulson and Jen- ner 1972; Norling 1984b). It is possible that the first step in the colonisation of the temperate zone has been to evolve a mechanism where the larval stage coincides with the adverse season. According to Corbet (1957a,b; 1964) and Norling (1984a), two important ecological demands are imposed upon aquatic insects like dragonflies in temperate climates. These include the need for all members of a population to pass the winter in a stage resistant to cold, and the need for the adult, reproductive stage to be restricted to the warm season. Also, there is the subsidiary need for the adult stage to be restricted to a certain period in the warm season so that competition with sympatric species may be reduced. All these demands involve conspecific synchronisation and the reduction of temporal variation at certain stages of development. Larval photoperiodic responses, interacting with temperature, also provide the framework for seasonal regu- lation (Norling 1984b; Suri Babu and Srivastava 1990). Although this study was carried out in a sub-tropical region, relatively close to the tropical centre of species distribution, species temporal trends reflected some as- pects of synchronisation, as with their temperate counterparts. Both the temperate and sub-tropical regions are characterised by four seasons with cold or cool winters. In contrast, the larval lifespan is very short in the tropics, where growth is usually rapid and the adult life often fairly long, bridging the dry season (Happold 1968; Gambles 1960; Corbet 1999; Hassan 1981; Van Huyssteen and Samways 2009). This is perhaps because of reduced fluctuations in environmental conditions (especially temperature) Climate and elevational range of a South African dragonfly assemblage 103 leading to unsynchronised odonate emergence, and the fact that long-lived dispersal stages are probably a prerequisite for species which inhabit temporary pools in the tropics. Most odonate species sampled here were on the wing for about nine months of the year, from September to May/June, and showed marked monthly variations in richness and abundance during this flight period. Thus in these sub-tropical species, the over- lapping generations show similarity to their tropical counterparts by long adult flight periods (Parr 1984), yet like the temperate species in overwintering as larvae. Furthermore, species that regularly move between habitats may need to adjust to climate changes that are occurring at different rates in different areas, such as between high, medium and low elevations (Inouye et al. 2000). Overall, the subtropical species studied here are characterised by wide elevational tolerance, as well as long flight period with overlapping generations. However, this does not mean that these species are toler- ant of the full 3000 m elevational range, with the Alpine zone being very species poor (Samways 1989a, 1992). Biogeographical implication of elevational tolerance Overall, odonate species richness ranged from 24 to 27 species between 301 and 1350 m a.s.l. However, below this (<300 m (SB)), richness increased to 31 spe- cies. Factors that may account for the high numbers of species at low elevations include high primary productivity (Connell and Orias 1964), increasingly benign, less variable and predictable environments (MacArthur 1975; Thiery 1982) and in- creased resource diversity (Gilbert 1984). Other processes (competition, predation and evolutionary time) may have also influenced species richness. Also, besides the advantages of a warm climate promoting larval development, the Low (SB) eleva- tion site also, predictably, had a wide range of habitat types. Additionally, there are no mountain chains that might otherwise prevent either temporary or permanent movement south from the species-rich northern areas, thus maximising regional recruitment. The influence of elevation on distribution patterns can also be highly dependent on latitude (Corbet 1999; MacDonald 2003; Koleff et al. 2003). This is illustrated by species which are found at progressively narrower elevations farther south. For in- stance, the intolerance of low temperatures by tropical species (e.g. Tetrathemis polleni in southern Africa) causes them to contract their southern range into a narrow lowland strip, extending down the eastern seaboard of southern Africa which is warmed by the south-moving Agulhas current. Most species sampled were widespread and common African species. However, three (6.4%) of species sampled were national endemics, accounting for just 13.6% of the total South African odonate endemics. Pseudagrion citricola and Africallagma sapphirinum occurred only at the High (GH) elevation, while Agriocnemis falcifera was across all elevations, suggesting that regional endemism does not necessarily equate to 104 Michael J. Samways & Augustine S. Niba/ BioRisk 5: 85-107 (2010) elevational intolerance (Fig. 7). Interestingly, like the non-endemics, two of these are relatively common, with only A. sapphirinum being rare. Although climate is important to odonate development, assemblage variation and geographical distribution, local factors (e.g. vegetation structure and composition) are also significant in this geographical area as well as elsewhere (Steytler and Samways 1995; Samways and Steytler 1996; Osborn and Samways 1996; Niba and Samways 2001). Furthermore, water depth is also important for larval stages (Samways et al. 1996). Most adult species here responded to sub-sites reflecting pH, open sunny versus shady and waterfall (flow) versus still water conditions. Influence of regional and local conditions were seen for example in Notiothemis jonesi which occurs only at the shady lower elevation gradient of Mid-low (KL). Zygoptera species were more strongly elevation dependent than Anisoptera spe- cies. A. sapphirinum, A. elongatum, P citricola, L. tridens and Azuragrion nigridosum were highly elevation-sensitive species. Elevation-tolerant species were L. plagiatus, I. senegalensis, C. glabrum, A. falcifera, Pseudagrion massaicum, P. salisburyense and P. ker- steni. As well as this regional response, there was also a local response. Zygoptera spe- cies mostly showed a higher degree of habitat specificity than the Anisopteran species. Allocnemis leucosticta, a South African endemic, for example, was restricted only to SS4 and 5 at the Botanical Gardens. One reason for this appears to be that Zygoptera are generally less vagile than Anisoptera. Implications of results for dragonfly response to global climate change South African dragonflies are extremely sensitive to fluctuations in water levels, with great fluctuations being impoverishing to the odonate assemblage (Osborn and Sam- ways 1996). Furthermore, the geographical area where this study was undertaken is subject to great variations in rainfall from one year to the next. Floods can be severe, yet the odonate assemblage can recover within a year (Samways 1989c), indicating its great resilience in this El Nifio-prone area. This means that the effects of global climate change will possibly be two-fold. Firstly, changes in temperature per se would appear, from these preliminary findings, not likely to have a great affect upon the assemblage. This is because the species involved, even the endemics, are vagile and opportunistic, and will simply colonize the habitats at the appropriate elevations. Secondly, but in contrast, the colonization process will depend greatly on the constancy of the water levels in the water bodies. While increased rainfall and flooding are likely not to be detrimental, any prolonged dry period is likely to be harmful. However, unless there is a prolonged and extreme drought, coupled loss of all local water bodies, there will almost certainly be remnant pools. Such pools would act as source habitats from which these resourceful species will disperse to new pools once the rains have returned (see Samways, this volume). Climate and elevational range of a South African dragonfly assemblage 105 Acknowledgements We thank for the critical comments from Jiirgen Ott. Funding was from the EU/ ALARM Project. 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