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Scales (Hemiptera, Superfamily Coccoidea)
Chapter 9.3
Giuseppina Pellizzari', Jean-Francois Germain?
Pp ¢
| Universita di Padova - Dipartimento Agronomia Ambientale e Produzioni Vegetali, Agripolis - Viale
dell’ Universita 16, 35020 Legnaro Padova, Italia 2 Laboratoire National de la Protection des Végétaux,
Station de Montpellier, CBGP Campus international de Baillarguet CS 30016 34988 Montferrier-sur-Lez
Cedex, France.
Corresponding authors: Giuseppina Pellizzari (giuseppina.pellizzari@unipd.it), Jean-Francois Germain (ger-
main@supagro.inra.fr)
Academic editor: David Roy | Received 1 February 2010 | Accepted 24 May 2010 | Published 6 July 2010
Citation: Pellizzari G, Germain J-F (2010) Scales (Hemiptera, Superfamily Coccoidea). Chapter 9.3. In: Roques A et al.
(Eds) Alien terrestrial arthropods of Europe. BioRisk 4(1): 475-510. doi: 10.3897/biorisk.4.45
Abstract
Scale insects are frequent invaders. With 129 established species, they numerically represent one of the
major group of insects alien to Europe. Scales are usually small insects with wingless females. Due to this
small size and concealment, many species, mainly belonging to the families Diaspididae, Pseudococcidae
and Pseudococcidae, have been accidentally introduced to Europe, mostly originating from tropical re-
gions and essentially from Asia. The trade of fruit trees and ornamentals appears to be the usual pathway
of introduction. At present, alien scales represent an important component of the European entomofauna,
accounting for about 30% of the total scale fauna.
Keywords
Europe, Alien, scale insects
9.3.1 Introduction
Coccoidea or scale insects is a large superfamily in the order Hemiptera with a world-
wide distribution. They are unusually small insects, highly specialized for plant para-
sitism, that have evolved different kinds of metamorphosis depending on sex and
family. Scale insects are characterized by sexual dimorphism: females are wingless,
usually small (from 0.5 — 10mm), with an oval or round but flat to fairly convex body
Copyright G. Pellizzari, J-F. Germain. This is an open access article distributed under the terms of the Creative Commons Attribution License, which
permits unrestricted use, distribution, and reproduction in any medium, provided the original author and source are credited.
476 Giuseppina Pellizzari & Jean-Francois Germain / Biokisk 4(1): 475-510 (2010)
form, sometimes bud shaped, and often protected by waxy secretions or covers. The
adult females may exhibit reduction or loss of appendages, depending on family and
instar, and are often sedentary or sessile. Adult males are usually winged and incon-
spicuous, do not feed and live a few days. Scale insect identification is mainly based
upon the morphology of adult females that persist on the host plant longer than the
other stages.
Females usually take three or four developmental stages to reach maturity, males
usually five. Parthenogenesis is quite common. Eggs are usually laid under the female
body, under the scale cover, or in waxy egg-sacs. Dispersal is carried out by first instars.
Scale insects feed on various parts of the host plant (leaves, fruits, stems, branches
and roots) and are frequently introduced and acclimatized in different parts of the
world. This is due to their small size (first instars are about 0.2—0.3mm; adult females
usually are from 0.5 tol0mm long) and their concealment using waxy secretions; be-
side many species live in hidden habitats (under leaf sheaths, in bark crevices or on
roots) so that they can easily escape visual quarantine inspections. Once in a new terri-
tory, parthenogenesis and high fecundity favour quick colonization starting from a few
females: for example, a single female Neopulvinaria innumerabilis may lay up to 8000
eggs (Canard 1968).
9.3.2 Taxonomy of the scale species alien to Europe
According to Ben-Dov et al. (2006) the superfamily Coccoidea comprises 22 families,
with more than 7300 described species. In Europe, native representatives of 12 fami-
lies have so far been recognized. On the basis of the best known western and central
European coccoid faunas (France, Italy, Hungary) (Ben-Dov et al. 2006, Foldi 2001,
Pellizzari and Russo 2004), the total number of scale insects present in Europe is likely
to reach about 400-450 species. Aliens recorded in Europe up until 2007 account
for 129 species which include the following eight families: Diaspididae (60 species),
Pseudococcidae (37), Coccidae (23), Eriococcidae (3), Margarodidae (2), Asterole-
canidae, Ortheziidae, and the alien family Phoenicococcidae, each with one species
(Table 9.3.1). Unlike for other taxa, aliens represent an important component of the
scale fauna currently present in Europe, i.e. near 30% (Fig. 9.3.1).
The remaining five native families (Aclerdidae, Cerococcidae, Kermesidae, Leca-
nodiaspididae, Micrococcidae) each have one or two species in Europe: none of them
is a pest, with the exception of the family Kermesidae (8 species in Europe), in which
Kermes vermilio and Nidularia pulvinata exhibit outbreaks in urban environments only.
One species, Dactylopius coccus Costa, representing the alien family Dactylopiidae,
has been included among aliens to Europe, even though it is present only in Canary is-
lands, Madeira and Azores, where it was intentionally introduced. These islands belong
politically to Europe (Spain, Portugal) but biogeographically they belong to Macaro-
nesia, a biogeographic Atlantic region quite distinct from the European continent and
with a unique flora and fauna.
Scales (Hemiptera, Superfamily Coccoidea). Chapter 9.3 477
No. species No. species
120 80 40 0 80 120
| t |
Diaspididae
Pseudococcidae
Coccidae
Eriococcidae
Margarodidae
Native species Aotanetaeantiane | Alien species
Ortheziidae |
Phoenicococcidae |
Dactylopiidae |
Figure 9.3.1 Taxonomic overview of the scale species alien to Europe compared to the native fauna. Spe-
cies alien zo Europe include cryptogenics.
Diaspididae
Armoured scale insects are the commonest alien scales incidentally introduced all over the
world: this is probably due to their small dimension and camouflage. ‘The 60 alien species
account for nearly half (44.6%) of an estimated 130 species in Europe. Many notorious
pests of fruit trees such as Pseudaulacaspis pentagona (the white peach scale- see factsheet
14.45)) and Diaspidiotus perniciosus (San José scale - see factsheet 14.44)) belong to this
family: these species are still pests of fruit trees in spite of the introduction of specific parasi-
toids from their native area. The Asiatic armoured scales of Citrus are largely found in Euro-
pean Citrus groves and presently number 10 species. Their invasion” started around 1850
with Parlatoria ziziphi and Lepidosaphes becki and is still going on with the arrival and estab-
lishment of Unaspis yanonensis (1969), Aonidiella citrina (1994), Chrysomphalus aonidum
(2000). Several armoured scales commonly occur throughout European greenhouses (e.g.
Diaspis echinocacti, Chrysomphatus dictyospermi, Diaspis bromeliae, Abgrallaspis cyanophylli),
even if they cannot be considered as established. In some cases, species recorded only in
greenhouses in northern and central Europe are established outdoors in southern countries
(i.e. Furchadaspis zamiae, Chrysomphalus aonidum). Some armoured scales thought to be of
Afrotropical origin or cryptogenic (e.g. Aspidiotus nerii, Hemiberlesia lataniae, H. rapax) are
very common in natural habitats of the Mediterranean countries (including small islands).
Pseudococcidae
Mealybugs are covered with mealy or cottony wax, have a distinct segmentation and
are mobile. The 37 alien mealybugs account for roughly one fourth (25.7%) of the
ca. 140 European species and most of them are polyphagous. Planococcus citri, Pseu-
478 Giuseppina Pellizzari & Jean-Francois Germain / Biokisk 4(1): 475-510 (2010)
dococcus longispinus, P viburni and P calceolariae arrived and established during the
19th century and are presently the most common species on ornamental plants, both
outdoors and indoors. P citri, first recorded in 1813, is still a pest of Citrus and orna-
mental plants. Several mealybugs have been recorded in only one or two countries to
date (e.g. Palmicultor palmarum, Phenacoccus madeirensis, Rhizoecus americanus, Tro-
chiscococcus speciosus), both outdoors and in greenhouses, on ornamental plants.
Coccidae
About 70 species of soft scales are recorded in Europe. Of these, there are 23 aliens
to Europe representing 32.8% of the fauna, and are mainly pests of fruit trees and
ornamentals. Among them, the polyphagous Coccus hesperidum and Saissetia oleae, the
well-known Mediterranean Black Scale, are probably the most ancient arrivals which
established in the countries surrounding the Mediterranean Basin. Most recent arriv-
als are Pulvinaria hydrangeae, P regalis (see factsheet 14.41), Ceroplastes japonicus and,
in warmer places, Protopulvinaria pyriformis, invasive on trees and ornamental plants
in urban environments. Some species, such as Coccus pseudomagnoliarum, after first
spreading in Mediterranean Citrus groves, later became more localised and less com-
mon. On the other hand, the American Pulvinaria innumerabilis is still considered a
pest of vine, more than 40 years after its arrival in European vineyards. Several spe-
cies (e.g. Saissetia coffeae, S. oleae, C. hesperidum, Eucalymnatus tessellatus, Parasaissetia
nigra) are rather common in greenhouses of central and northern Europe, while in
southern Europe are outdoors pests.
Eriococcidae
European felt scales number about 50 species. Among them, only three alien felt scales
have been so far recorded. The Australian Eriococcus araucariae is widespread on Arau-
caria trees growing in Mediterranean countries, the American E£. coccineus is recorded
on succulent plants and Ovaticoccus agavium is quite common on Agave sp. growing
outdoors.
Margarodidae
European margarodids recorded up until now number 15 species. Two alien margaro-
dids, Icerya purchasi (the cottony cushion scale) and J. formicarum, invaded Europe at
very different times. The latter species is known from a single record in 2001 in Corsica
and its establishment is unknown. On the other hand, the Australian /. purchasi has
both established and caused an agricultural and environmental impact. It arrived and
established in many Mediterranean countries between the end of 1800 and the first
Scales (Hemiptera, Superfamily Coccoidea). Chapter 9.3 479
decades of 1900 and was very destructive to Citrus groves. The high infestations led to
the introduction of the Australian coccinellid Rodolia cardinalis, for biological control.
Presently, the cottony cushion scale is mainly a pest of ornamental plants such as Pit-
tosporum, Acacia and Mimosa. It is also a very common species in semi-natural habitats
(i.e. the Mediterranean maquis), far away from cultivated areas, where it develops on
autochthonous wild plants such as Cistus, Genista, Smilax and Rosmarinus. Two other
margarodids, Marchalina hellenica and Matsucoccus feytaudi, are alien in Europe, en-
tirely due to deliberate introduction.
Asterolecanidae
About 10 species of asterolecanids are present in Europe. Of these, the only alien pit
scale is the Asiatic Bambusaspis bambusae, a species associated with bamboos.
Ortheziidae
Ortheziids consist of 10 species in Europe. Among these, /nsignorthezia insignis, a poly-
phagous Neotropical species, has been reported in European greenhouses since the end
of 19th century. Apparently J. insignis is established outdoors only in Portugal and
France.
Phoenicococcidae
Phoenicococcus marlatti, the Red Date Palm Scale, thought to originate in the Middle
East or North Africa, is the only species currently placed in the family Phoenicococ-
cidae. It is considered a minor pest of commercial dates, whereas in Spain, France and
Italy, it infests ornamental palms (mainly Phoenix canariensis).
9.3.3 Temporal trends of introduction in Europe of alien scale species
Fig. 9.3.2. presents the temporal variation in the mean number of new alien species
recorded per year since 1492. Serious studies of the Coccoidea began in mid 19th cen-
tury. From that time, to the mid-1970s, the introduction of alien species was relatively
constant, averaging 0.66 species per year. Since then, there is an apparent increase in
alien introductions, up to an average of 1.15 species per year.
In interpreting this chart, account should be taken of “old” alien species, found
and described in Europe, (i.e. Aspidiotus nerii, Planococcus citri, Coccus hesperidum,
Saissetia oleae) for which the introduction date is based only on the date of their first
description. In the case of the most harmful alien scales, the date of first introduc-
480 Giuseppina Pellizzari & Jean-Francois Germain / Biokisk 4(1): 475-510 (2010)
Mean number of new alien species
recorded per year during the period
0 0.4 0.8 1.2
pep tg
1492-1799 : -
1800-1849 i ~
1850-1874 i -
1875-1899 TT
1900-1924 as ; =
1925-1949 i
1950-1974 as «
1975-1990 ir»
2000-2007 TTT
|
Figure 9.3.2 Temporal trends in the mean number of new records per year of scale species alien to Eu-
rope from 1492 to 2007. The number above the bar indicates the absolute number of species in this time
period.
tion to Europe and the chronology of their invasion is known more precisely (i.e.
for Pseudaulacaspis pentagona, Icerya purchasi, Diaspidiotus perniciosus). Moreover,
records of alien scales depend on the presence of specialists in a given country. For
instance, during the 1970—80s, advances in systematic knowledge and the increasing
number of active coccidologists led to the “discovery” of several species which have
probably been introduced a long time before. The great rise in the global exchanges
of plants and quarantine inspections can explain the increases in subsequent years
up until the present.
Among the scale insects introduced to Europe from the end of 19% century to
1960s there are several pests of fruit trees and Citrus (i.e. Diaspidiotus perniciosus,
Lepidosaphes gloverii, Pseudaulacaspis pentagona, Ceroplastes sinensis, Icerya purchasi),
whereas in the last 40 years the most numerous introduced scales are pest of or-
namental plants, both outdoors and indoors (i.e. Pulvinaria regalis, P hydrangeae,
Ceroplastes japonicus, Protopulvinaria pyriformis, Parassaisetia nigra, Trochiscococcus
speciosus), the main scale of agricultural importance being Neopulvinaria innumera-
bilis, a pest of vine.
Scales (Hemiptera, Superfamily Coccoidea). Chapter 9.3 481
9.3.4 Biogeographic patterns of the scale species alien to Europe
9.3.4.1 Origin of the alien species
The geographical origin of introduced scale insects shows a large dominance of
species from tropical areas, essentially Asia, followed by southern American species
(Fig. 9.3.3). The precise origin remains unknown for about one fourth of alien
scales. Among the most widespread aliens to Europe are Diaspidiotus perniciosus
of temperate Asian, Planococcus citri from tropical Asia, Ceroplastes sinensis from
Central-America, Parthenolecanium fletcheri from Northern-America, Saissetia oleae
from the Afrotropics, Icerya purchasi from Australasia, and Lepidosaphes beckii as
cryptogenic species.
9.3.4.2 Distribution of the alien species in Europe
It should be borne in mind that, as for the other arthropod groups, the number of
records of alien scales in European countries, reflects, in part, differences of study
intensity and the number of local taxonomists. Moreover, the geographic position of
some countries such as France, Italy and Spain, whose climatic conditions vary from
high montane, continental to Mediterranean, allows establishment of species from
very different geographical areas. Two countries present a particularly high number
of alien species: France with 90 species and Italy with 92 species (Fig. 9.3.4). Lagging
far behind are Spain, Great Britain and Portugal with 50, 43 and 41 species, respec-
tively. The islands of the Atlantic, not represented in the figure, have respectively
51 aliens in the Canaries, 44 in Madeira and 22 in the Azores. There are 12 alien
species recorded in at least 20 countries, namely Coccus hesperidum (28 countries),
Pulvinaria floccifera (21), Saissetia coffeae (24), S. oleae (26), Aspidiotus nerii (26),
Diaspidiotus perniciosus (26), Pinnaspis aspidistrae (20), Pseudaulacaspis pentagona
(21), Planococcus citri (22), Pseudococcus longispinus (22) and P viburni (26). These
are all polyphagous species, with the exception of Unaspis euonymi, monophagous
on Euonymus spp., recorded in 22 countries. A total of 20 species (15%) are present
only in one country.
9.3.4.3 Scale species alien in Europe
With regard to scale insects alien im Europe, that is originating from another Eu-
ropean area where native and introduced through human activity, only very few
certain cases are known. Marchalina hellenica is native to Turkey and Greece and
presently invasive in the small island of Ischia (Italy). It was introduced there in
1960 to study endosymbiosis, but unfortunately escaped from laboratory bree-
ding and presently is a pest of pines (Tranfaglia and Tremblay 1984). Matsucoccus
482 Giuseppina Pellizzari & Jean-Francois Germain / Biokisk 4(1): 475-510 (2010)
Afrotropical
Cryptogenic | (32).
20.2) “a
_Asia-Temperate
a he
Tropical/subtropical
oon
C & South America ~ ~~~ Asia-Tropical
17.8 wa A 2
Northern America Australasia
12.4 6.2
Figure 9.3.3 Geographic origin of the scale species alien to Europe.
Number of alien species
no data TE 1c -30 ID 50-60
se ss: > a «.»
Figure 9.3.4 Numbers of established alien scale species in the European countries and main islands ac-
cording to Table 9.3.1. Archipelago: | Azores 2 Madeira 3 Canary islands.
Scales (Hemiptera, Superfamily Coccoidea). Chapter 9.3 483
Figure 9.3.5 Ceroplastes ceriferus (Coccidae). Credit: Giuseppina Pellizzari
Ty .
a is @ ,
: i
i “Sa hs
Psa
A. +
Figure 9.3.6 Coccus hesperidum (Coccidae). Credit: Giuseppina Pellizzari
7
6 arsed
feytaudi lives on Pinus pinaster and is native to the Atlantic regions of France,
Spain and Portugal. It was introduced with its host plant in South-eastern France
and from there spread towards Italy (Arzone and Vidano 1981). Both Aonidiella
lauretorum and A. tinerfensis are endemic to the Atlantic islands of Canary (Spain)
and Madeira (Portugal). They were introduced incidentally with their host plants
484 Giuseppina Pellizzari & Jean-Francois Germain / Biokisk 4(1): 475-510 (2010)
Figure 9.3.7 Parasaissetia nigra (Coccidae). Credit: Giuseppina.
Figure 9.3.8 Protopulvinaria pyriformis (Coccidae). Credit: Giuseppina Pellizzari.
in the Botanic gardens of Sintra and Lisbon (Portugal), where they still persist
(Balachowsky 1948).
9.3.6 Pathways of introduction in Europe of alien scale species
Scale insects are highly specialized, sedentary, plant-parasitic insects and the only path-
way of introduction is the horticultural and ornamental trade: importation and trade
Scales (Hemiptera, Superfamily Coccoidea). Chapter 9.3 485
Figure 9.3.9 Pulvinaria hydrangeae (Coccidae). Credit: Nico Schneider
Figure 9.3.10 Pulvinaria floccifera (Coccidae). Credit: Nico Schneider
of fruit and Citrus trees, ornamental trees and bushes, bulbs and corms, has led to in-
cidental introduction and subsequent spread of scale insects. More recently, the “fash-
ion’ of succulent plant cultivation and the subsequent increase in plant importation
and plant exchanges among collectors is responsible for the introduction and spread
of several species such as Delottococcus euphorbiae, Hypogeococcus pungens, Trochisco-
coccus speciosus, Vryburgia rimariae, Spilococcus mamillariae and Eriococcus coccineus.
Importation of bonsais from Asia could allow the introduction and spread of Rhizoecus
hibisci, a mealybug living on roots and recently intercepted several times by European
quarantine services.
486 Giuseppina Pellizzari & Jean-Francois Germain / Biokisk 4(1): 475-510 (2010)
Figure 9.3.12 Unaspis yanonensis (Diaspididae). Credit: Giuseppina Pellizzari.
9.3.7 Ecosystems and habitats invaded in Europe by alien scale species
Alien, established scale insects colonize strongly anthropogenic habitats such as cul-
tivated agricultural lands, horticultural and domestic habitats, urban environments,
gardens and parks, botanic gardens, nurseries and greenhouses, but they have also
spread to natural habitats. Mediterranean Citrus groves host a large community of
alien scales: 18 different species have been so far recorded. ‘These are: Icerya purchasi
Planococcus citri, Pseudococcus calceolariae, P longispinus, Ceroplastes sinensis, Coccus
hesperidum, C. pseudomagnoliarum, Saissetia oleae, Aonidiella aurantii, A. citrina, As-
Scales (Hemiptera, Superfamily Coccoidea). Chapter 9.3 487
Figure 9.3.14 Ovaticoccus agavium (Eriococcidae). Credit: Giuseppina Pellizzari
pidiotus nerii, Chrysomphalus dictyospermi, C. aonidum, Lepidosaphes beckii, L. gloverii,
Parlatoria pergandii, P ziziphi and Unaspis yanonensis. Some polyphagous scales are
urban pests, largely distributed in urban parks and gardens, on trees and ornamentals
(i.e. Pulvinaria regalis, P hydrangeae, Ceroplastes japonicus), whereas they are absent or
very rare in the countryside. A few monophagous species are only known in Botani-
cal gardens, where they persist outdoors, at a low population levels, on exotic plants
488 Giuseppina Pellizzari & Jean-Francois Germain / Biokisk 4(1): 475-510 (2010)
Figure 9.3.15 Pseudococcus comstocki (Pseudococcidae). Credit: Giuseppina Pellizzari
Figure 9.3.16 Pseudococcus longispinus (Pseudococcidae). Credit: Giuseppina Pellizzari
introduced over there a long before (i.e. Aonidiella tinerfensis, Pseudaonidia paeoniae or
Bambusaspis bambusae).
Several other monophagous species remain strictly associated to their original, ex-
otic ornamental plants, and have a correspondingly wide distribution in Europe (ie.
Parthenolecanium fletcheri, Pulvinaria mesembryanthemi, Eriococcus araucariae). On the
other hand, some polyphagous species (i.e. Diaspidiotus perniciosus, Pseudaulacaspis pen-
tagona, Pulvinaria floccifera) have spread from cultivated areas to natural woodland and
forest habitats (Balachowsky 1932b, Balachowsky 1936). Others (Antonina graminis,
Scales (Hemiptera, Superfamily Coccoidea). Chapter 9.3 489
Figure 9.3.17 Pseudococcus calceolariae (Pseudococcidae). Credit: Jean Francois Germain
Chorizococcus rostellum and Trionymus angustifrons) can be found in grasslands. In natu-
ral habitats of Mediterranean countries (including small islands), species such as the
armoured scales Aspidiotus nerii (see factsheet 14.43), Hemiberlesia lataniae, H. rapax,
the mealybug Planococcus citri, the wax scale Ceroplastes sinensis and the Australian 1.
purchasi are quite common on wild autochthonous plants, growing far away from cul-
tivated plants. Their transfer from cultivated plants to authochtonous ones in natural
environments confirms that they have fully acclimatized.
9.3.8 Impact of alien scale species
Scale insects are plant pests, especially of fruit trees, woody ornamentals, forest trees
and greenhouse plants. They cause damage to plants by sap sucking. Moreover, except
for Diaspididae and Asterolecaniidae, they excrete honeydew that covers leaves and
fruits and allows the development of sooty mould. This black sooty mould can reduce
photosynthesis by 70%, leading to early senescence, with smaller and premature fruits,
and loss of aesthetic value (Mibey 1997). Moreover, Coccidae and Pseudococcidae are
vectors of closteroviruses. For example, Planococcus citri and Pulvinaria innumerabilis
may transmit the Grapevine Leafroller-associated Virus (GLRaV-1, GLRaV-3) and the
Corky Bark disease (GVA, GVB) (Sforza et al. 2003, Zorloni et al. 2006). Diaspididae
490 Giuseppina Pellizzari & Jean-Francois Germain / Biokisk 4(1): 475-510 (2010)
cause discolouration on leaves, red or black spots on fruits, and twig dieback. Pesticides
are commonly applied to control scale insects in fruit orchards and Citrus groves. In-
festations of alien scales in orchards have led to the introduction to Europe, from their
native area, of many natural enemies for biological control purposes.
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